Evaluación del riesgo cardiovascular en una muestra poblacional con dos tablas predictivas en La Habana / Assessment of Cardiovascular Risk in a Population Sample Using Two Predictive Tables in Havana

Introducción: Las enfermedades del corazón, cerebrovasculares y de las arterias, arteriolas y vasos capilares ocuparon el primero, tercero y séptimo lugar, respectivamente, de las principales causas de muerte en Cuba en 2017 y 2018; ello denota la necesidad de implementar acciones inmediatas que favorezcan la modificación de esos indicadores. La evaluación del riesgo cardiovascular permite identificar de forma individual y estratificar a nivel de grupos los principales factores de riesgo de estas afecciones. Objetivo: Evaluar el riesgo cardiovascular en una muestra poblacional. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo, para la evaluación del evaluación del riesgo cardiovascular en una población del área de salud 27 de Noviembre del municipio Marianao, La Habana, en el año 2018, según las tablas predictivas de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para las Américas región A (OMS AMR A) y las de Gaziano. Se confeccionó un cuestionario para la recogida de la información socio-demográfica y antecedentes patológicos personales. Se midió la presión arterial y se calculó el índice de masa corporal. Resultados: Según las tablas predictivas de la OMS AMR A, 80, 9 por ciento presentó riesgo cardiovascular bajo. Según las tablas predictivas de Gaziano, el riesgo alto y muy alto consolidados representó el 31,5 por ciento de los individuos. Conclusiones: Las tablas predictivas de Gaziano mostraron mayor sensibilidad en la evaluación del riesgo cardiovascular de esta población que las de OMS AMR A, lo que constituye un instrumento útil y de aplicación factible en el primer nivel de atención, para su predicción a nivel individual y de un grupo poblacional(AU)

Introduction: Heart, cerebrovascular and diseases of the arteries, arterioles and capillary vessels ranked first, third and seventh, respectively, as the leading causes of death in Cuba in 2017 and 201. This denotes the need to implement immediate actions that favor the modification of such indicators. Cardiovascular risk assessment allows for individual identification and stratification, at group level, of the main risk factors for these conditions. Objective: To assess cardiovascular risk in a population sample. Methods: A cross-sectional and descriptive study was carried out to assess cardiovascular risk in a population of the 27 de Noviembre health area of Marianao Municipality, Havana, in 2018, according to the predictive tables of the World Health Organization for the Americas region A (WHO AMR A) and those of Gaziano. A questionnaire was prepared for the collection of sociodemographic information and individual disease history. Blood pressure was measured and body mass index was calculated. Results: According to the WHO AMR A predictive tables, 80.9 percent presented low cardiovascular risk. According to Gaziano predictive tables, consolidated high and very high risk accounted for 31.5 percent of the individuals. Conclusions: Gaziano's predictive tables showed greater sensitivity in the assessment of cardiovascular risk in this population than those of the WHO AMR A, which makes it a useful instrument and of feasible application at the first level of care for prediction at the individual level and at the level of a population group(AU)

La exposición a campos electromagnéticos y su relación con el riesgo cardiovascular en una población

Introducción: La generación de energía eléctrica constituye uno de los indicadores más importantes de desarrollo de una nación. En ese proceso se generan campos electromagnéticos de frecuencia extremadamente baja, que pudieran afectar el corazón. Objetivo: Identificar la asociación entre el riesgo cardiovascular y la exposición a los campos electromagnéticos de frecuencia extremadamente baja. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo en el Área de Salud 27 de Noviembre, del municipio Marianao de la provincia La Habana, en el año 2018. La muestra estuvo constituida por 152 individuos. Se les determinó el riesgo cardiovascular, según las tablas predictivas de Gaziano sin laboratorio. Se realizaron mediciones de las densidades de flujo magnético en sus viviendas. Se valoró si estas, se asociaron a la intensidad de generación de electricidad de la vecina central termoeléctrica y con el riesgo cardiovascular global de los residentes. Se utilizó correlación no paramétrica de Spearman. Resultados: El 31,6 % de la población estudiada fue evaluada con el riesgo cardiovascular alto y muy alto en su conjunto. 120 individuos estuvieron expuestos en sus viviendas a densidades del flujo magnético entre 0 y 0,9 µT. Existió una correlación estadística significativa, entre la intensidad de la corriente generada por la industria y las densidades de flujo magnético en las habitaciones usadas para dormir. Conclusiones: No se observó asociación entre el riesgo cardiovascular y las densidades de flujo magnético medidas en las viviendas. La exposición a los campos electromagnéticos de frecuencia extremadamente baja no constituyó un factor de riesgo cardiovascular para la población estudiada.

Introduction: The generation of electrical energy constitutes one of the most important indicators of development of a nation. In this process, extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields are generated, which could affect the heart. Objective: To identify the association between global cardiovascular risk and exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. Methods: A cross-sectional, descriptive study was carried out in the Health Area November 27, of the Marianao municipality of Havana province, in 2018. The sample consisted of 152 individuals. The cardiovascular risk was determined, according to the Gaziano predictive tables without laboratory. Measurements of magnetic flux densities were made in their homes. It was assessed whether these were associated with the intensity of electricity generation at the neighboring thermoelectric plant and with the overall cardiovascular risk of the residents. Spearman's non-parametric correlation was used. Results: 31,6% of the studied population was evaluated with high and very high cardiovascular risk as a whole. 120 individuals were exposed in their homes to magnetic flux densities between 0 and 0,9 µT. There was a statistically significant correlation between the intensity of the current generated by the industry and the magnetic flux densities in the rooms used to sleep. Conclusions: No association was observed between the cardiovascular risk and the magnetic flux densities measured in the dwellings. Exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields was not a cardiovascular risk factor for the population studied.

La hipertensión arterial en Cuba según la Encuesta Nacional de Salud 2018-2019

Introducción: La hipertensión arterial es una condición médica grave que aumenta significativamente los riesgos de enfermedades cardiovasculares y otras. La mayoría de personas hipertensas ignoran que lo son. Es muy importante medir la presión arterial de manera periódica, es la única forma de detectar la enfermedad. Objetivo: Valorar indicadores de morbilidad por hipertensión arterial y pre hipertensión en el país, a partir de los hallazgos de la prevalencia, tratamiento y control de la enfermedad dados por Encuesta Nacional de Salud, concluida en el año 2019. Métodos: Como parte de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud, Cuba 2018-2019, se realizó un estudio transversal, con el objetivo de identificar la prevalencia de hipertensión arterial, según las variables sociodemográficas, zona geográfica de residencia, en el momento del diagnóstico; el manejo y control de los hipertensos conocidos y la clasificación de los nuevos hipertensos según las cifras sisto/diastólicas presentadas en el momento del diagnóstico. Incluyó a población de 15 años y más, residentes en zonas urbanas y rurales. Resultados: La prevalencia de hipertensión arterial en Cuba fue de 37,3 %, superior en las mujeres con 40,2 %, tanto a nivel global como en las áreas geográficas urbana y rural. Predominaron los hipertensos de ambos sexos en las áreas urbanas. Se incrementó la hipertensión en la medida que lo hizo la edad. Conclusiones: Existió un incremento en la prevalencia total de hipertensión arterial en Cuba en los últimos 24 años. Esta fue superior a la dispensarización reportada a nivel nacional en el primer nivel de atención de salud.

Introduction: High blood pressure is a serious medical condition that significantly increases the risks of cardiovascular and other diseases. Most hypertensive people are unaware that they are. It is very important to measure blood pressure periodically, it is the only way to detect the disease. Objective: To assess indicators of morbidity due to hypertension and pre-hypertension in the country, based on the findings of the prevalence, treatment and control of the disease given by the National Health Survey, concluded in 2019. Methods: As part of the National Health Survey, Cuba 2018-2019, a cross-sectional study was carried out, with the aim of identifying the prevalence of high blood pressure, according to sociodemographic variables, geographic area of ​​residence, at the time of diagnosis; the management and control of known hypertensive patients and the classification of new hypertensive patients according to the systolic/diastolic figures presented at the time of diagnosis. It included the population aged 15 and over, residing in urban and rural areas. Results: The prevalence of arterial hypertension in Cuba was 37.3 %, higher in women with 40.2 %, both globally and in urban and rural geographic areas. Hypertensive patients of both sexes predominated in urban areas. Hypertension increased as age did. Conclusions: There was an increase in the total prevalence of arterial hypertension in Cuba in the last 24 years. This was higher than the dispensarization reported at the national level in the first level of health care.

Vulnerabilidad poblacional a la COVID-19 severa desde los datos de la encuesta nacional de salud

RESUMEN Introducción: Nuevas cepas de SARS-CoV-2 detectadas recientemente provocan aumento de la morbilidad y mortalidad no solo en adultos mayores. Conocer la población vulnerable es un reto. Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a la COVID-19 severa y sus factores sociodemográficos asociados. Métodos: Estudio observacional transversal analítico con datos provenientes de la encuesta nacional de salud 2018-2020, que incluye 13 684 personas de 19 y más años de edad. El cuestionario estructurado provee la información de variables sociodemográficas, antecedentes patológicos personales e historia familiar, mediciones de la presión arterial y bioquímicas, entre otras. Vulnerabilidad a COVID-19 severa se construyó según propuesta del CDC de Atlanta, EE. UU y fue la variable dependiente. Resultados: La prevalencia de adultos vulnerables a COVID-19 severa en el país fue de 68,3 %, riesgo superior en el adulto mayor (86,5 %), en los no blancos y en la percepción de condiciones de vida "malas". En adultos mayores ser hombre protege, en tanto, fue riesgo, vivir en la región oriental del país. La hipertensión arterial (39,4 %), seguida del tabaquismo (22,2 %), la obesidad (16,6 %) y las enfermedades respiratorias crónicas (10,6 %) fueron las afecciones médicas más frecuentes. Conclusiones: La vulnerabilidad a la COVID-19 severa en la población adulta cubana es elevada, consecuentemente, constituye un serio problema de salud. Factores no modificables se asocian positivamente a la vulnerabilidad: ser adulto mayor, mujer, color de piel no blanca y padecer hipertensión arterial, en tanto, las "malas" condiciones de vida es el único que puede ser modificado.

ABSTRACT Introduction: New SARS-CoV-2 strains recently detected cause an increase in morbidity and mortality not only in the elderly. Identifying the vulnerable population is a challenge. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 and its associated sociodemographic factors. Methods: An observational cross-sectional analytic study using data from the 2018-2020 National Health Survey. It included 13 684 individuals aged 19 years and over. The structured questionnaire included information on the sociodemographic variables, personal and family pathological antecedents, and records of blood pressure and biochemistry tests, among others. Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 was developed based on the proposal from the CDC Atlanta, USA and it was the dependable variable. Results: The prevalence of adults vulnerable to severe COVID-19 in the country was 68.3%. At higher risk are the elderly (86.5%), non-white individuals, and those who perceived themselves as having poor living conditions. For the elderly, being male was a protective factor, while living in the western region of the country was a risk factor. High blood pressure (39.4%), smoking (22.2%), obesity (16.6%) and chronic respiratory diseases (10.6%) were the most frequent health problems. Conclusions: Vulnerability to severe COVID-19 in the Cuban adult population is high; consequently, it is considered a serious health problem. Non-modifiable factors are positively associated with vulnerability: being an older adult, female, non-white skin color, and suffering from hypertension; while "poor" living conditions is the only modifiable factor.

Características epidemiológicas de la COVID-19 en La Habana, epicentro de Cuba

RESUMEN Introducción: En Cuba, La Habana es declarada el epicentro de la pandemia y se desconocen sus particularidades. Objetivo: Examinar las características epidemiológicas de la COVID-19 en La Habana. Métodos: Estudio epidemiológico observacional descriptivo de todos los casos con COVID-19 confirmados entre el 17 de marzo-30 de junio de 2020 en La Habana. Información procedente de la investigación epidemiológica realizada a cada caso positivo. Análisis estadístico realizado con el paquete estadístico R versión 4.0.1 y el análisis espacial con el software libre QGIS 3.0. Resultados: El pico epidémico se alcanzó con 64 casos y brotes institucionales pasados 30 días del inicio de la epidemia. Existió variabilidad de las incidencias entre los municipios y un tránsito favorable de la incidencia, recuperados y fallecidos a partir de los 45 días de la pandemia. Los estadios clínicos de la enfermedad difieren respecto a la edad y los municipios de procedencia. El mayor riesgo de morir es proporcional a la edad. Los enfermeros y las mujeres son más vulnerables al contagio. Conclusiones: El máximo aumento de casos a nivel poblacional y los brotes institucionales son importantes en la dinámica de una epidemia. La incidencia y la mortalidad difieren entre los municipios. Los estadios clínicos de la enfermedad están influidos por la edad y las comorbilidades. El personal de enfermería es frecuentemente enfermado. Tener un plan nacional para el enfrentamiento de esta contingencia junto a la voluntad política del estado es una fortaleza en la evolución satisfactoria de la pandemia. Profundizar en la epidemiología e impactos de las estrategias salubristas es necesario.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Havana has been declared the COVID-19 pandemic epicenter in Cuba, but its specific features are not known. Objective: Examine the epidemiological characteristics of COVID-19 in Havana. Methods: An observational descriptive epidemiological study was conducted of all the COVID-19 cases confirmed in Havana from 17 March to 30 June 2020. Data were obtained from the epidemiological study of each positive case. Statistical analysis was based on the statistical package R, version 4.0.1, whereas the free software QGIS 3.0 was used for spatial analysis. Results: The epidemic peak was reached with 64 cases and institutional outbreaks 30 days after the start of the epidemic. Variability was found between the incidence values for the different municipalities, and a favorable transit was observed of the incidence of the disease and the number of recoveries and deaths as of 45 days of the pandemic. Clinical stages of the disease vary with age and the municipality of residence. Risk of death is proportional to age. Nurses and women are more vulnerable to contagion. Conclusions: Maximum increase in the number of cases on a population level and institutional outbreaks are important elements in the dynamic of an epidemic. Incidence and mortality differ between municipalities. The clinical stages of the disease are influenced by age and comorbidities. The nursing personnel are at greater risk of becoming ill. A national contingency plan and the political will of the state are strengths in the successful combat against the pandemic. It is necessary to gain further insight into the epidemiology of the disease and the impact of the health strategies implemented.

Levels of Vitamins and Homocysteine in Older Adults with Alzheimer Disease or Mild Cognitive Impairment in Cuba.

INTRODUCTION Age-related cognitive disorders, including Alzheimer disease, are among the main causes of disability and dependence in older adults worldwide. High blood homocysteine levels (hyperhomocysteinemia) are a risk factor for diseases whose metabolism involves different B vitamins. Antioxidant vitamins provide a protective effect by mitigating oxidative stress generated by these diseases. Epidemiological studies have presented varying results on the relationships between blood levels of these vitamins and such cognitive disorders. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the association of vitamin and homocysteine levels with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease in a group of Cuban older adults. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted in Havana, Cuba, of 424 persons aged ≥65 years: 43 with Alzheimer disease, 131 with mild cognitive impairment, and 250 with no signs of cognitive impairment. Dementia was diagnosed using criteria of the International 10/66 Dementia Research Group and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV), and mild cognitive impairment was diagnosed using Petersen's criteria. Blood levels of vitamins (thiamine, B-2, folate, B-12, C and A) and homocysteine were measured by standard procedures. Analysis of variance for continuous variables and percentage comparison tests for dichotomous variables were used to compare groups. RESULTS Persons with Alzheimer disease presented signifi cantly lower levels of vitamins B-2, C and A than healthy participants (p <0.05). Homocysteine levels were signifi cantly higher in those with Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment than in participants with no cognitive impairment (p <0.05). Statistically, levels of thiamine, folic acid, and vitamin B-12 were not signifi cantly different across groups. Compared with those without cognitive impairment, prevalence rates (PR) in the Alzheimer group were signifi cantly higher for hyperhomocysteinemia (PR = 3.26; 1.84-5.80) and defi - ciency of all B vitamins: thiamine (PR = 1.89; 1.04-3.43), B-2 (PR = 2.85; 1.54-5.26), folate (PR = 3.02; 1.53-5.95), B-12 (PR = 2.21; 1.17-4.19), vitamin C (PR = 3.88; 2.12-7.10) and A (PR = 5.47; 3.26-9.17). In mild cognitive impairment, prevalence rates were signifi cantly higher for hyperhomocysteinemia (PR = 1.42; 1.08-1.87), vitamin B-2 defi ciency (PR = 1.70; 1.24-2.32) and vitamin A defi - ciency (PR =1.88; 1.05-3.38). CONCLUSIONS Hyperhomocysteinemia and various vitamin defi ciencies are related to Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment. Longitudinal studies are needed to further elucidate the relationship between different nutritional biomarkers and dementia. A better understanding of this relationship could provide a basis for therapeutic and preventive strategies. KEYWORDS Vitamins, homocysteine, geriatrics, Alzheimer disease, cognitive impairment, Cuba.

Estimación del riesgo cardiovascular en una población, según dos tablas predictivas / Estimation of cardiovascular risk in a population, according to two predictive tables

RESUMEN Fundamento: las enfermedades del corazón, las cerebrovasculares y las de las arterias, arteriolas y vasos capilares, están dentro de las diez primeras causas de muerte en Cuba. El riesgo cardiovascular, es la probabilidad de que una persona desarrolle un evento cardiovascular, en un período de tiempo determinado. Objetivo: estimar el riesgo cardiovascular en una población del área de atención primaria de salud 27 de Noviembre. Métodos: se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo para la estimación del riesgo cardiovascular en una población, con edades comprendidas entre 40 y 70 años de edad, del área de salud 27 de Noviembre del municipio Marianao, en La Habana, en el 2018, según dos tablas predictivas: las de la Organización Mundial de la Salud con colesterol y las de Gaziano sin laboratorio. Se compararon ambas determinaciones. Las variables utilizadas fueron edad, sexo y antecedentes patológicos personales, que se obtuvieron a través de una entrevista estructurada. Se midió la presión arterial, el peso, la talla y se calculó el índice de masa corporal. 85 individuos constituyeron la muestra, se realizaron las determinaciones bioquímicas de colesterol y firmaron su consentimiento informado. Resultados: la mitad de la población estudiada fue portadora de hipercolesterolemia y según las tablas de Gaziano sin laboratorio, a casi la cuarta parte se les estimó el riesgo cardiovascular alto y muy alto. Conclusiones: las tablas de Gaziano sin laboratorio, permitieron una mejor estratificación de las estimaciones del riesgo cardiovascular en esta población.

ABSTRACT Background: diseases of the heart, cerebrovascular and of the arteries, arterioles and capillaries are among the first ten causes of death in Cuba. Cardiovascular risk is the probability that a person develops a cardiovascular event in a given period of time. Objective: to estimate the cardiovascular risk in a population of the November 27 primary health care area according to two predictive tables and to compare both predictions. Methods: a cross-sectional descriptive study for the estimation of cardiovascular risk was carried out in a population of 40 to 70 years of age, in 27 de Noviembre health area of the Marianao municipality, Havana, in 2018, according to two predictive tables: one of the World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension with cholesterol values and the other one of Gaziano's non-laboratory-based method. Both determinations were compared. The variables used were age, sex and personal pathological history, which were obtained through a structured interview. Blood pressure, weight, height were measured and body mass index was calculated. 85 individuals constituted the sample, all of them had the biochemical cholesterol determinations and signed the informed consent. Results: half of studied subjects had hypercholesterolemia, and according to Gaziano's tables almost a quarter was estimated to have high and very high cardiovascular risk. Conclusions: Gaziano's tables allowed a better stratification of cardiovascular risk estimates in this population.

Exploración de la presión arterial en pobladores del área de salud 27 de Noviembre del municipio Marianao / Blood Pressure Exploration in the November 27th Health Area Population from Marianao Municipality

RESUMEN Fundamento: las enfermedades del corazón fueron la primera causa de defunciones en Cuba en el 2018, dentro de ellas, en segundo lugar, las enfermedades hipertensivas. La hipertensión arterial puede ser una causa directa de muerte, pero además, es el factor de riesgo cardiovascular que más muertes provoca. Objetivo: explorar el comportamiento de la presión arterial en una población de un área de salud, para determinar la prevalencia de pacientes hipertensos, el control de la enfermedad en ellos y la existencia o no, de nuevos casos. Método: se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo, para explorar la presión arterial en una población con edades entre 40 y 70 años, de los consultorios uno y tres del área de salud 27 de Noviembre del municipio Marianao, La Habana, en 2018. La selección de la muestra se realizó por factibilidad y estuvo constituida por 152 individuos, que firmaron su consentimiento informado. Se realizaron entrevistas personalizadas, examen físico con mediciones de la presión arterial, del peso y la talla y se calculó el índice de masa corporal. Los datos se procesaron con el programa estadístico SPSS 15.0. Se utilizó estadística descriptiva: frecuencias, porcentajes y el coeficiente de correlación Rho de Spearman. Resultados: predominaron las personas del grupo de edades de 50 a 59 años. Se encontraron 68 personas con el diagnóstico de hipertensión arterial para el 44,7 % y presuntos hipertensos fue el 4,6 %, al consolidarlos, se alcanzó una prevalencia de 49,3 %. Conclusión: la medición de la presión arterial a la población, es fundamental para su control.

ABSTRACT Background: heart diseases were the first cause of deaths in Cuba in 2018, within them, secondly, hypertensive diseases. High blood pressure can be a direct cause of death, but it is also the cardiovascular risk factor that causes the most deaths. Objective: to explore the behavior of blood pressure in a population of a health area, to determine the prevalence of hypertensive patients, the control of the disease in them and the existence or not of new cases. Method: a cross-sectional, descriptive study was carried out to explore blood pressure in a population aged between 40 and 70 years, in clinics one and three of the November 27 health area of the Marianao municipality, Havana, in 2018. The Selection of the sample was carried out by feasibility and consisted of 152 individuals, who signed their informed consent. Personalized interviews, physical examination with measurements of blood pressure, weight and height were carried out, and the body mass index was calculated. The data were processed with the statistical program SPSS 15.0. Descriptive statistics were used: frequencies, percentages and Spearman's Rho correlation coefficient. Results: people from the age group 50 to 59 years predominated. There were 68 people with a diagnosis of hypertension the 44.7 % and suspected hypertensive the 4.6 %, upon consolidation, a prevalence of 49.3 % was reached. Conclusion: the measurement of blood pressure in the population is essential for its control.

Prevalence and risk factors for wheeze, decreased forced expiratory volume in 1 s and bronchoconstriction in young children living in Havana, Cuba: a population-based cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Asthma has not been extensively studied in low-income and middle-income countries, where risk factors and access to treatment may differ from more affluent countries. We aimed to identify the prevalence of asthma and local risk factors in Havana, Cuba. SETTING: Four municipalities in Havana, Cuba. PARTICIPANTS: A population-based cohort study design of young children living in Havana, Cuba. Children were recruited from primary care centres at age 12-15 months. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Data on wheeze in the past 12 months, asthma treatment and environmental exposures collected regularly until the age of 6 years, when forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and reversibility to aerosolised salbutamol were also measured. RESULTS: 1106 children provided data at the age of 6 years old. The prevalence of wheeze in the previous 12 months was 422 (38%), and 294 (33%) of the study population had bronchodilatation of 12% or more in FEV1 after administration of inhaled salbutamol. In the previous 12 months, 182 (16%) of the children had received inhaled corticosteroids, 416 (38%) salbutamol inhalers and 283 (26%) a course of systemic steroids.Wheeze in the first year and a family history of asthma were both positively associated with bronchodilatation to inhaled salbutamol (1.94%; 95% CI 0.81 to 3.08 and 1.85%; CI 0.14 to 3.57, respectively), while paracetamol use in the first year was associated with wheeze at 6 years (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.14 to 2.35). There were large differences in FEV1, bronchodilatation and risk of wheeze across different geographical areas. CONCLUSIONS: Asthma is common in young children living in Havana, and the high prevalence of systemic steroids administrated is likely to reflect the underuse of regular inhaled corticosteroids. If replicated in other comparable low-income and middle-income countries, this represents an important global public health issue.

Métodos y sustancias empleados en la conducta suicida en adolescentes / Methods and substances involved in teen suicide

Introducción: Actualmente, el suicidio es un problema de salud que constituye la tercera causa de muerte a nivel mundial en los adolescentes entre 11 y 18 años, y en Cuba es la cuarta causa de muerte en las edades de 10 a 19 años. Los métodos empleados para cometer el intento de suicidio y el suicidio están en dependencia de su disponibilidad, el acceso que la persona tenga a un método particular, el antecedente familiar que tenga del uso de uno u otros métodos, entre otros. Objetivo: Identificar el método utilizado para cometer el intento de suicidio y el suicidio en adolescentes. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo retrospectivo, que forma parte de varias tareas incluidas en el Proyecto de investigación Estrategia de prevención de la conducta suicida en adolescentes de provincias seleccionadas, que duró 10 años. Resultados: Los métodos empleados fueron consumo de psicofármacos y los tóxicos para los intento de suicidio y en los casos de suicidios, fueron, prioritariamente, ahorcamiento e incineración. Las sustancias mayormente empleadas fueron: herbicidas y lociones de uso externo para la piel. Conclusiones: Los métodos empleados que predominaron para los intentos de suicidio fueron los psicofármacos y tóxicos, y el ahorcamiento e incineración para el suicidio, lo que pudiera estar en correspondencia con la disponibilidad de los mismos(AU)

Introduction: Suicide is a current health problem constituting the third leading cause of death worldwide among 11-18-year-old teenagers. In Cuba it is the fourth leading cause of death in the 10-19 years age group. The methods used to commit a suicide attempt or suicide depend on their availability, the person's access to a given method, and family antecedents of the use of one method or another, among others. Objective: Identify the methods used by teenagers to commit attempted or actual suicide. Methods: A retrospective descriptive study was conducted as part of the various tasks included in the research project Strategy to prevent suicidal behavior among teenagers from selected provinces, which was developed for ten years. Results: The methods used in suicide attempts were the intake of psycholeptics and toxic substances, whereas the methods used for actual suicide were mainly hanging and burning. The most common substances were herbicides and topical skin lotions. Conclusions: The methods most frequently used were the intake of psycholeptics and toxic substances for suicide attempts and hanging and burning for suicide. This could be associated to the availability of resources required to commit the act(AU)

The prevalence, clinical status and genotype of cystic fibrosis patients living in Cuba using national registry data.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to establish a national cystic fibrosis (CF) registry for Cuba, a developing country. METHODS: Regional centres that deliver care for all CF patients provided information for a national database. FINDINGS: The prevalence of CF in Cuba is 26.3 cases per 1,000,000 population. The median age at diagnosis is 2 years, and the median age of the total population was 15 years. Of those aged 16 years or older, the prevalence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection was 46%, the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus infection was 36%, and 80% of individuals were receiving oral azithromycin. The commonest gene mutation was F508del which was observed in 50% of patients. INTERPRETATION: These data demonstrate that it is possible to establish a national CF registry in a developing country such as Cuba. This provides baseline data to permit evaluation of health care delivery enable the spread of good clinical practice nationally.

The association between dengue immunoglobulin G titres with previous clinical dengue infection and white cell counts in Cuban children: A population-based study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of dengue infection is increasing globally. There are few prospective population-based surveillance studies of the immunological and inflammatory consequences of exposure to dengue virus in young children. OBJECTIVE: To study the association between serologically confirmed prior medical diagnosis of dengue infection and blood measures of systemic inflammation with dengue virus immunoglobulin G levels. METHODS: A population-based study of healthy three-year old children living in Havana, Cuba. RESULTS: 865 individuals provided a blood sample. Fourteen (1.6%) had a prior medical diagnosis of dengue infection, and 851 individuals had no prior medical diagnosis. There was no difference in the serum immunoglobulin G titres between these groups (Mann-Whitney test, p = 0.49). Total white cell count, blood neutrophil and eosinophil counts were linearly associated with a dengue immunoglobulin G value above the median value. CONCLUSIONS: There was no difference between the dengue immunoglobulin G titres in young children who had previously had clinically proven dengue infection compared to those who had no diagnosis of prior infection. This may be a consequence of a relatively high prevalence of sub-clinical infection. A higher dengue immunoglobulin G level was positively associated with a range of inflammatory biomarkers, although these data cannot demonstrate a causal association.

[Prevalence, incidence and factors associated with adverse reactions to foods in Cuban infants. A population-based cohort study]. / Prevalencia, incidencia y factores asociados con reacción adversa a alimentos en infantes cubanos. Estudio de cohorte de base poblacional.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases in Cuban children is high, but little is known about adverse reactions to foods. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence, incidence and risk factors for adverse reaction to foods in children. METHODS: Population-based cohort study carried out in Havana, Cuba, in a three-year period. Parents of 1543 children provided medical and lifestyle information from the first to the third year of age, which was collected using a questionnaire. An adverse reaction to foods was defined by medical diagnosis reported by the parents or caregivers. RESULTS: Annual cumulative incidence was 5.7%, 1.9% and 0.8%, whereas annual prevalence was 5.7%, 4% and 2.5% at 1, 2 and 3 years of age, respectively; 8% of infants had experienced an adverse reaction to foods when they turned 3 years of age. Cow milk was the most commonly implicated food. Main risk factors were allergenic food consumption, use of antibiotics, factors related to the presence of allergens, maternal history of overweight during pregnancy and allergy to insect bites. CONCLUSIONS: Adverse reaction to food is a significant clinical problem in children from Havana. Modifiable risk factors were identified, the understanding of which will help to direct effective intervention strategies.

Antecedentes: Aunque la prevalencia del asma y enfermedades alérgicas en niños cubanos es alta, se conoce poco de las reacciones adversas a alimentos. Objetivo: Determinar prevalencia, incidencia y factores de riesgo para reacciones adversas a alimentos en niños. Métodos: Estudio de cohorte de base poblacional de La Habana, Cuba, en un periodo de tres años. Los padres de 1543 niños proveyeron datos médicos y de estilos de vida del primer al tercer año de edad, colectados con un cuestionario. La reacción adversa a alimentos fue definida por diagnóstico médico reportado por los padres o cuidadores. Resultados: La incidencia acumulada anual fue 5.7, 1.9 y 0.8 % y la prevalencia anual de 5.7, 4 y 2.5 % al uno, dos y tres años, respectivamente; 8 % de los infantes a los tres años tuvo una reacción adversa a alimentos. La leche de vaca fue el alimento más implicado. Los principales factores de riesgo fueron consumo de alimentos alergénicos, uso de antibióticos, factores relacionados con la presencia de alérgenos, historia materna de sobrepeso durante el embarazo y alergia a picaduras de insectos. Conclusiones: La reacción adversa al alimento es un problema significativo en los niños de La Habana. Se identificaron factores de riesgo modificables, cuya comprensión puede dirigir las intervenciones.

Epilepsy mortality trends in Cuba compared with England and Wales: 1987-2010.

There are limited epilepsy mortality data from developing countries and Latin America in particular. We examined national epilepsy mortality data from Cuba and contrasted them with comparable data from England and Wales. National epilepsy mortality data for Cuba between the years 1987 and 2010 were obtained from the Medical Records and Health Statistics Bureau of the Cuban Public Health Ministry (www.sld.cu/sitios/dne/) with the corresponding mortality data from England and Wales obtained from the UK Office of National Statistics (ONS, www.ons.gov.uk). Indirect standardization with calculation of a standardized mortality ratio (SMR) was used to compare trends. The overall trend was of a slight decrease in mortality rates over the 23 years in Cuba, with higher mortality rates primarily occurring in young people. Annual age-adjusted rates were consistently lower in Cuba than those seen in England and Wales, with the SMR ranging from 0.35 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.30 to 0.48) in 2007 to 1.00 (95% CI: 0.85 to 1.15) in 1994. Cuban epilepsy mortality rates are consistently lower than those of England and Wales. Reasons for this disparity in mortality rates are not immediately apparent but are likely to be multifactorial.

Enfermedades no transmisibles: factores de riesgo y acciones para su prevención y control en Cuba

[RESUMEN]. Las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) representan uno de los mayores desafíos para el desarrollo en el siglo XXI, debido al devastador impacto social, económico y de la salud pública que provocan. El propósito de este artículo es describir la evolución y los factores de riesgo de las ENT en Cuba, principalmente en el período 1990–2015, reseñar las acciones emprendidas por el Ministerio de Salud Pública y destacar los desafíos más importantes para su prevención y control. La información contenida proviene de los datos colectados y publicados por la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud, investigaciones sobre los factores de riesgo, otros estudios fundamentados y la documentación de acciones integrales. La mortalidad en Cuba está determinada por cuatro grandes problemas de salud: enfermedades cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, enfermedades crónicas de las vías respiratorias inferiores y diabetes mellitus, que en conjunto causan el 68,0% de los fallecimientos. La tendencia del cáncer es al ascenso y la enfermedad renal crónica emerge como un grave problema de salud. Cuba cuenta con una línea de base conocida sobre los factores de riesgo, de ellos la hipertensión y el consumo de tabaco son los principales relacionados con la mortalidad por ENT. En consonancia con la importancia de estas enfermedades se aprecian hitos e intervenciones de impacto positivo, así como brechas y desafíos en el marco del Plan de Acción Mundial de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el enfrentamiento a las ENT.

[ABSTRACT]. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) represent one of the greatest challenges for development of the 21st century due to their devastating social, economic and public health impact. The objective of this article are to describe the evolution and risk factors for NCDs in Cuba, mainly in the period 1990–2015, to outline actions undertaken by the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba, and to highlight the most important challenges with a focus on their prevention and control. The information is based on data collected and published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics, research on risk factors, other studies and documentation of comprehensive actions. Mortality in Cuba is determined by four major health problems: cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, chronic diseases of the lower respiratory tract and diabetes mellitus, which together cause 68.0% of deaths. Cancer presents a growing trend, and chronic kidney disease emerges as a serious health problem. Cuba has a known baseline on risk factors, and hypertension and tobacco consumption are the main factors related to NCDs mortality. In line with the importance of these diseases, there are milestones and interventions with a positive impact, as well as gaps and challenges within the framework of the World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs.

[RESUMO]. As doenças não transmissíveis (DNT) representam um dos maiores desafios do século 21 para o desenvolvimento devido ao desvastador impacto social, econômico e de saúde pública que elas causam. O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução e os fatores de risco das doenças não transmissíveis em Cuba, principalmente no período de 1990–2015, para delinear as ações realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba e destacar os desafios mais importantes para sua prevenção e controle. A informação vem dos dados coletados e publicados pela Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde, pesquisa sobre fatores de risco, outros estudos fundamentados e documentação de ações abrangentes. A mortalidade em Cuba é determinada por quatro principais problemas de saúde: doenças cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, doenças crônicas do trato respiratório inferior e diabetes mellitus, que em conjunto causam 68,0% das mortes. O câncer tem uma tendência crescente, e a doença renal crônica surge como um grave problema de saúde. Cuba tem uma linha de base conhecida sobre os fatores de risco, dos quais a hipertensão e o consumo de tabaco são os principais relacionados à mortalidade por DNT. Em consonância com a importância dessas doenças, há marcos e intervenções com impacto positivo, bem como lacunas e desafios no âmbito do Plano de Ação Mundial da Organização Mundial da Saúde para enfrentar as doenças não transmissíveis.

[Non-communicable diseases: risk factors and actions for their prevention and control in CubaDoenças não transmissíveis: fatores de risco e ações para sua prevenção e controle em Cuba]. / Enfermedades no transmisibles: factores de riesgo y acciones para su prevención y control en Cuba.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) represent one of the greatest challenges for development of the 21st century due to their devastating social, economic and public health impact. The objective of this article are to describe the evolution and risk factors for NCDs in Cuba, mainly in the period 1990-2015, to outline actions undertaken by the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba, and to highlight the most important challenges with a focus on their prevention and control. The information is based on data collected and published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics, research on risk factors, other studies and documentation of comprehensive actions. Mortality in Cuba is determined by four major health problems: cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, chronic diseases of the lower respiratory tract and diabetes mellitus, which together cause 68.0% of deaths. Cancer presents a growing trend, and chronic kidney disease emerges as a serious health problem. Cuba has a known baseline on risk factors, and hypertension and tobacco consumption are the main factors related to NCDs mortality. In line with the importance of these diseases, there are milestones and interventions with a positive impact, as well as gaps and challenges within the framework of the World Health Organization's Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs.

As doenças não transmissíveis (DNT) representam um dos maiores desafios do século 21 para o desenvolvimento devido ao desvastador impacto social, econômico e de saúde pública que elas causam. O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução e os fatores de risco das doenças não transmissíveis em Cuba, principalmente no período de 1990­2015, para delinear as ações realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba e destacar os desafios mais importantes para sua prevenção e controle. A informação vem dos dados coletados e publicados pela Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde, pesquisa sobre fatores de risco, outros estudos fundamentados e documentação de ações abrangentes. A mortalidade em Cuba é determinada por quatro principais problemas de saúde: doenças cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, doenças crônicas do trato respiratório inferior e diabetes mellitus, que em conjunto causam 68,0% das mortes. O câncer tem uma tendência crescente, e a doença renal crônica surge como um grave problema de saúde. Cuba tem uma linha de base conhecida sobre os fatores de risco, dos quais a hipertensão e o consumo de tabaco são os principais relacionados à mortalidade por DNT. Em consonância com a importância dessas doenças, há marcos e intervenções com impacto positivo, bem como lacunas e desafios no âmbito do Plano de Ação Mundial da Organização Mundial da Saúde para enfrentar as doenças não transmissíveis.

Enfermedades no transmisibles: factores de riesgo y acciones para su prevención y control en Cuba / Non-communicable diseases: risk factors and actions for their prevention and control in Cuba / Doenças não transmissíveis: fatores de risco e ações para sua prevenção e controle em Cuba

RESUMEN Las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) representan uno de los mayores desafíos para el desarrollo en el siglo XXI, debido al devastador impacto social, económico y de la salud pública que provocan. El propósito de este artículo es describir la evolución y los factores de riesgo de las ENT en Cuba, principalmente en el período 1990-2015, reseñar las acciones emprendidas por el Ministerio de Salud Pública y destacar los desafíos más importantes para su prevención y control. La información contenida proviene de los datos colectados y publicados por la Dirección de Registros Médicos y Estadísticas de Salud, investigaciones sobre los factores de riesgo, otros estudios fundamentados y la documentación de acciones integrales. La mortalidad en Cuba está determinada por cuatro grandes problemas de salud: enfermedades cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, enfermedades crónicas de las vías respiratorias inferiores y diabetes mellitus, que en conjunto causan el 68,0% de los fallecimientos. La tendencia del cáncer es al ascenso y la enfermedad renal crónica emerge como un grave problema de salud. Cuba cuenta con una línea de base conocida sobre los factores de riesgo, de ellos la hipertensión y el consumo de tabaco son los principales relacionados con la mortalidad por ENT. En consonancia con la importancia de estas enfermedades se aprecian hitos e intervenciones de impacto positivo, así como brechas y desafíos en el marco del Plan de Acción Mundial de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el enfrentamiento a las ENT.

ABSTRACT Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) represent one of the greatest challenges for development of the 21st century due to their devastating social, economic and public health impact. The objective of this article are to describe the evolution and risk factors for NCDs in Cuba, mainly in the period 1990-2015, to outline actions undertaken by the Ministry of Public Health of Cuba, and to highlight the most important challenges with a focus on their prevention and control. The information is based on data collected and published by the Directorate of Medical Records and Health Statistics, research on risk factors, other studies and documentation of comprehensive actions. Mortality in Cuba is determined by four major health problems: cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, chronic diseases of the lower respiratory tract and diabetes mellitus, which together cause 68.0% of deaths. Cancer presents a growing trend, and chronic kidney disease emerges as a serious health problem. Cuba has a known baseline on risk factors, and hypertension and tobacco consumption are the main factors related to NCDs mortality. In line with the importance of these diseases, there are milestones and interventions with a positive impact, as well as gaps and challenges within the framework of the World Health Organization's Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs.

RESUMO As doenças não transmissíveis (DNT) representam um dos maiores desafios do século 21 para o desenvolvimento devido ao desvastador impacto social, econômico e de saúde pública que elas causam. O objetivo deste artigo é descrever a evolução e os fatores de risco das doenças não transmissíveis em Cuba, principalmente no período de 1990-2015, para delinear as ações realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde Pública de Cuba e destacar os desafios mais importantes para sua prevenção e controle. A informação vem dos dados coletados e publicados pela Diretoria de Registros Médicos e Estatísticas de Saúde, pesquisa sobre fatores de risco, outros estudos fundamentados e documentação de ações abrangentes. A mortalidade em Cuba é determinada por quatro principais problemas de saúde: doenças cardiovasculares, tumores malignos, doenças crônicas do trato respiratório inferior e diabetes mellitus, que em conjunto causam 68,0% das mortes. O câncer tem uma tendência crescente, e a doença renal crônica surge como um grave problema de saúde. Cuba tem uma linha de base conhecida sobre os fatores de risco, dos quais a hipertensão e o consumo de tabaco são os principais relacionados à mortalidade por DNT. Em consonância com a importância dessas doenças, há marcos e intervenções com impacto positivo, bem como lacunas e desafios no âmbito do Plano de Ação Mundial da Organização Mundial da Saúde para enfrentar as doenças não transmissíveis.

The association of low birth weight with serum C reactive protein in 3-year-old children living in Cuba: A population-based prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: Low birthweight is associated with a decreased risk of childhood leukemia and an increased risk of both cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in adult life. Possible biological mediators include systemic innate immunity and inflammation. We tested the hypothesis that birthweight was inversely associated with serum high sensitivity C reactive protein assay (hsCRP), a measure of both innate immunity and systemic inflammation. METHODS: Data on birthweight and current anthropometric measures along with a range of exposures were collected at 1 and 3 years of age in a population-based cohort study of young children living in Havana, Cuba. A total of 986 children aged 3-years-old provided blood samples that were analyzed for serum hsCRP levels. RESULTS: Nearly 49% of children had detectable hsCRP levels in their serum. Lower birthweight was linearly associated with the natural log of hsCRP levels (beta coefficient -0.70 mg L-1 per kg increase in birthweight, 95% CI: -1.34 to -0.06). This was attenuated but still present after adjustment for the child's sex and municipality (-0.65 mg L-1 per kg birthweight; 95% CI: -1.38 to +0.08). There were no associations between growth from birth or anthropometric measures at 3 years and systemic inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: Birthweight was inversely associated with serum hsCRP levels in children aged 3 years living in Cuba. These observations provide a potential mechanism that is present at the age of 3 years to explain the association between low birthweight and both decreased childhood leukemia and increased cardiovascular disease in adults.

Population-based weight loss and gain do not explain trends in asthma mortality in Cuba: A prospective study from 1964 to 2014.

BACKGROUND: The increase in prevalence of obesity is a possible risk factor for asthma in developed countries. As the people of Cuba experienced an acute population-based decrease in weight in the 1990s, we tested the hypothesis that national weight loss and subsequent weight gain was associated a reciprocal changes in asthma mortality. METHODS: Data were obtained on mortality rates from asthma and COPD in Cuba from 1964 to 2014, along with data on prevalence of obesity for this period. Joinpoint analysis was used to identify inflexion points in the data. RESULTS: Although the prevalence of obesity from 1990 to 1995 decreased from 14% to 7%, over the same time period the rate of asthma mortality increased from 4.5 deaths per 100,000 population to 5.4 deaths per 100,000 population. In 2010, the obesity prevalence subsequently increased to 15% in 2010, while the asthma mortality rate dropped to 2.3 deaths per 100,000 population. The optimal model for fit of asthma mortality over time gave an increasing linear association from 1964 to 1995 (95% confidence interval for inflexion point: 1993 to 1997), followed by a decrease in asthma mortality rates from 1995 to 1999 (95% confidence interval for inflexion point: 1997 to 2002). CONCLUSIONS: These national data do not support the hypothesis that population-based changes in weight are associated with asthma mortality. Other possible explanations for the large decreases in asthma mortality rates include changes in pollution or better delivery of medical care over the same time period.